Wood quality assessment of tree trunk from the tree branch sample and auxiliary data based on NIR Spectroscopy and SilviScan
Parole chiave:
Smolensk birch, Smolensk crash, silver Birch, Wood Quality, MOE, Wood Density, SilviScan, Green Wood, Log Grading, Knots in Lumber, Wood Engineering, Wood Pole Standards, Southern PineAbstract
We estimated wood quality parameters for a specific tree trunk using samples of this tree's branch, and auxiliary samples from other similar species, based on analysis of wood density, modulus of elasticity (MOE), and microfibril angle (MFA), measured with the near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and SilviScan processes. The measured materials included a branch sample from the subject tree, also known as the Smolensk birch, and stem analysis disk samples from silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) trees collected in central Poland. We analyzed and modeled the pith-to-bark and base-to-tip density changes in the silver birch samples, and using developed models estimated the subject tree trunk air-dry wood quality parameters and compared them with published yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) and silver birch tabular data. Then we compared the corresponding surrogated green wood parameters of the subject tree against the standard American utility wood pole parameters, and identified environmental adjustments necessary for a realistic and accurate representation of the final subject tree wood characteristics. The final conclusions from this study are that the subject tree dry wood parameters are not significantly different (in the statistical sense) from the well-documented yellow birch parameters, which were used as their surrogate, and even without the due reductions in parameters for excessive amount of whorls and branches, and for the height of the tree break (5 to 7 m above ground), the structural parameters of the subject tree green wood, as applicable to live tree and as surrogated by appropriate yellow birch parameters, are generally weaker than corresponding dry wood parameters for the standard American wood poles and weaker then the southern yellow pine parameters. The adjustments for the whorls and knots and height of the break may yield some additional 50% reduction in the estimates for the subject tree structural wood parameter values.
Riferimenti bibliografici
AITC (American Institute of Timber Construction). 1993. Standard specification for glued laminated timber of softwood species. AITC-117-93-Design. AITC, Englewood, CO.
ANSI (American National Standards Institute). 1992. Wood poles, specifications, and dimensions. ANSI 05.1. ANSI, New York.
ANSI. 1993. National electric safety code. ANSI C2. ANSI, New York.
ANSI. 1995. Solid sawn-wood cross arms and braces-specifications and dimensions. ANSI 05.3. ANSI. New York.
ANSI. 1996. Structural glued laminated timber for utility structures. ANSI 05.2. ANSI, New York.
ASAE (American Society of Agricultural Engineers). 1996. Design properties of round, sawn, and laminated preservative-treated construction poles. ASAE EP388, Agricultural Engineers Handbook. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials. 1996a. Standard methods for establishing design stresses for round timber piles. Vol. 4.09, ASTM D2899. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 1996b. Standard specification and methods for establishing recommended design stresses for round timber construction poles. Vol 4.09, ASTM D3200. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 1996c. Standard practice for preservative treatment of utility poles by the thermal process. ASTM D4064. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 1996d. Standard specifications for round timber piles. Vol 4.09, ASTM D25-91. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 1996e. Standard test methods of static tests of wood poles. Vol 4.09, ASTM D1036-96. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
AWPA (American Wood Preservers' Association). 1997. Poles-Preservative treatment by pressure process. AWPA C4-89. AWPA, Stevensville, MD.
Bendtsen, B.A.; Freese, F.; Ethington, R.L. 1970. Methods for sampling clear, straight-grained wood from the forest. Forest Products Journal. 20(11):38–47.
Binienda, W.K. 2011. Analysis of the Polish governmental plane crash in Smolensk, Russia, on April 10, 2010. University of Akron, last updated November 25, 2011, http://www.ecgf.uakron.edu/civil/people/binienda/Parlament%20November%202011%20%20English.pdf
Bodig, J.; Anthony, R. 1992. A strength grading concept for wood utility poles. In Proceedings of International Conference on Wood Poles and Piles, April 1992.
Bodig, J.; Goodman, J.R. 1973. Prediction of elastic parameters for wood. Wood Science. 5(4):249–264.
Bodig, J.; Jayne, B.A. 1982. Mechanics of wood and wood composites. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Buchar, J.; Rolc, S.; Lisy, J.; Schwengmeier, J. 2001. Model of the wood response to the high velocity of loading. Proceedings of the 19th International Symposium of Ballistics, Interlaken, Switzerland. http://www.mif.pg.gda.pl/kft/Akron1/wood%20model%20orthtropical%20elastic.pdf
Chmelar, T. 1992. Variability of the conventional wood density of Spruce picea-abies l. Karst. Branches in dependence on the position of branches in crown. Lesnictvi (Prague) 38(2):127–135.
Cieszewski, C.J. 2001. Three methods of deriving advanced dynamic site equations demonstrated on Inland Douglas-fir site curves. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 31 (1):165–173.
Cieszewski, C.J. 2002. Comparing fixed- and variable-base-age polymorphic site equations having single versus multiple asymptotes. Forest Science. 48(1):7–23.
Cieszewski, C.J. 2003. Developing a well-behaved dynamic site equation using a modified Hossfeld IV function Y3 = axm/(c+xm-1), a simplified mixed-model and scant subalpine fir data. Forest Science. 49: 539–554.
Cieszewski, C.J. 2012. Robust assessment of nonlinearly convergent means easily biased by linear shifting of sample placements. FSA Technical Report 2012-1. WSFNR, The University of Georgia.
Cieszewski, C.J.; Iles, K.; Lowe, R.C. 2012. Post field measurements of knot to clear wood proportions and other wood defects conducted on stem photographs. WSFNR Technical Report 2013-2.
Cieszewski, C.J.; Zasada, M. 2003. Derivation of generic dynamic site equations using generalized algebraic difference approach. Sylwan. 3: 40–46.
CINAA (Committee for Investigation of National Aviation Accidents) KBWL. 2011. Final Report on the examination of the aviation accident no 192/2010/11 involving the Tu-154M airplane, tail number 101, which occurred on April 10th, 2010 in the area of the Smolensk North airfield, Warsaw (In English). Available online at: http://mswia.datacenter-poland.pl/FinalReportTu-154M.pdf. Last accessed on Feb. 12, 2013.
Coffey, D.J. 1962. Effects of knots and holes on the fatigue strength of quarter-scale timber bridge stringers. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, Department of Civil Engineering. M.S. Thesis.
Czachor, M. 2012. Crash tests on Douglas DC-7 and Lockheed Constellation versus Tu-154M Smolensk crash. Presentation at the Smolensk Conference, Warsaw, 2012.
Dolezal, J., Ishii, H.; Kyncl, T.; Takahashi, K.; Vetrova, V.P.; Homma, K., Sumida, A., Hara, T. 2010. Climatic factors affecting radial growth of (Betula ermanii) and (Betula platypylla) in Kamchatka. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 40(2):273–285.
EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute). 1985. Wood pole properties. Vol. 1. Background and southern pine data. EPRl EL-4109 Project 1352-2. Research Institute of Colorado, Ft. Collins, CO.
EPRI. 1986. Wood pole properties: Vol. 2. Douglas-fir data. Vol. 3. Western red cedar data and size effect. EPRl EL-4109 Project 1352-2. Research Institute of Colorado, Ft. Collins, CO.
Eranen, J.K.; Kozlov, M.V. 2009. Interactions between mountain birch seedlings from differentiated populations in contrasting environments of subarctic Russia. Plant Ecology. 200(2):167–177.
Evans, R. 2006. Wood stiffness by X-ray diffractometry. In Characterization of the cellulosic cell wall. Edited by Stokke, D. D. and Groom, L. H. Blackwell Publishing, Ames: Iowa State University Press, Iowa. pp. 138–146.
Evans, R. 1999. A variance approach to the x-ray diffractometric estimation of microfibril angle in wood. Appita Journal. 52(4):283–294.
Evans, R. 2005. Wood stiffness by x-ray diffractometry. In: "Characterisation of the cellulosic cell wall", Chapter 11. Proceedings of the workshop 25-27 August 2003, Grand Lake, Colorado, USA. Sothern Research Station, University of Iowa and the Society of Wood Science and technology. D. Stokke and L. Groom, eds. Blackwell Publishing.
Evans, R.; Downes, G.; Menz, D.; Stringer, S. 1995. Rapid measurement of variation in tracheid transverse dimensions in a radiata pine tree. Appita Journal. 48(2):134–138.
Evans, R.; Hugues, M.; Menz, D. 1999. Microfibril angle variation by scanning x-ray diffractometry. Appita Journal. 52(5):363–367.
Evans, R.; Ilic, J. 2001. Rapid prediction of wood stiffness from microfibril, angle and density. Forest Products Journal. 51(3):53–57.
Fukui, K.; Sone, T.; Yamagata, K.; Otsuki, Y.; Sawada, Y.; Vetrova, V.; Vyatkina, M. 2008. Relationships between permafrost distribution and surface organic layers near Esso, central Kamchatka, Russian far east. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes. 19(1):85–92.
Gerhards, C.C. 1982. Effect of moisture content and temperature on the mechanical properties of wood: an analysis of immediate effects. Wood and Fiber. 14(1):4–36.
Gryc, V., P. Horacek, J. Slezingerova, and H. Vavrcik. 2011. Basic density of Spruce wood, wood with bark, and bark of branches in locations in the Czech Republic. Wood Res. 56(1):23–32.
Gurau, L., M. Cionca, H. Mansfield-Williams, G. Sawyer, and O. Zeleniuc. 2008. Comparison of the mechanical properties of branch and stem wood for three species. Wood Fiber Sci. 40(4):647–656.
Heräjärvi, H. 2004a. Variation of basic density and Brinell hardness within mature Finnish Betula pendula and B. pubescens stems. Wood and Fiber Science. 36(2): 216–227.
Heräjärvi, H. 2004b. Static bending properties of Finnish birch wood. Wood Science and Technology. 37(6): 523–530.
Hynynen, J.; Niemisto, P.; Vihera-Aarnio, A.; Brunner, A.; Hein, S.; Velling, P. 2010. Silviculture of birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in northern Europe. Forestry. 83(1):103–119.
Interstate Aviation Committee (MAK). 2011a. Final Report on results of investigation of aviation accident involving the Tu-154B-2, tail number RA-85588, airport Surgut, on January 1, 2011. (In Russian).
Interstate Aviation Committee (MAK). 2011b. Final Report on the investigation of air accident of Tu154M registration number 101 of the Republic of Poland. Moscow, 2011. www.mak.ru/english/english.html.
Jevdokimov, A.P. 1984. experiences of curly birch growing in northwestern Russia. Silva Fennica. 18(3):303–312.
Kozlov, M.V. 2005. Sources of variation in concentrations of nickel and copper in mountain birch foliage near a nickel-copper smelter at Monchegorsk, northwestern Russia: results of long-term monitoring. Environmental Pollution. 135(1):91–99.
Kozlov, M.V.; Zvereva, E.L. 2004. Reproduction of mountain birch along a strong pollution gradient near Monchegorsk, Northwestern Russia. Environmental Pollution. 132(3):443–451.
Kozlov, M.V.; Lanta, V.; Zverev, V.E.; Zvereva, E.L. 2012. Delayed local responses of downy birch to damage by leafminers and leafrollers. Oikos. 121(3):428–434.
Kressbach, J.N.; Gjovik, L.R.; Wolfe, R.W. 1996. Metrification of pole standard. In Proceedings of second southeastern pole conference, Forest Products Society, Madison, WI.
Kretschmann, D.E. 2008. The influence of juvenile wood content on shear parallel, compression and tension perpendicular to grain strength and mode I fracture toughness of loblolly pine at various ring orientations. Forest Products Journal. 58(7/8):89–96.
Lachowicz H. 2008. Tensile strength parallel to the grain of silver birch wood in north-eastern Poland. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Forestry and Wood Technology 64: 5–8.
Lachowicz H. 2010a. Struktura włókien drewna brzozy brodawkowatej (Betula pendula Roth.) w północno-wschodniej Polsce. (In Polish). Leśne Prace Badawcze 71 (1): 39–50.
Lachowicz H. 2010b. Wybrane wskaźniki jakości technicznej drewna brzozy brodawkowatej (Betula pendula Roth.) w północno-wschodniej Polsce. (In Polish). Leśne Prace Badawcze 71 (2): 135–147.
Lachowicz H. 2011a. Wpływ położenia i wieku drzew na wartości współczynników jakości wytrzymałościowej drewna brzozy brodawkowatej (Betula pendula Roth.). (In Polish). Sylwan 155 (8): 535–545.
Lachowicz H. 2011b. Wpływ grubości drzew na wybrane właściwości strukturalne i fizyko-mechaniczne drewna brzozy brodawkowatej (Betula pendula Roth.). (In Polish). Sylwan 155 (9): 581–588.
Lee, P.W., Y.J. Chung, and M. Kwon. 1991. Cellular anatomy of compression wood and opposite wood in a branch of taxodium-distichum rich. Journal of Korean Forestry Society 80(3):296–302.
Linnakoski, R.; De Beer, Z.W.; Rousi, M.; Niemela, P.; Pappinen, A.; Wingfield, M.J. 2008. Fungi, including Ophiostoma karelicum sp nov., associated with Scolytus ratzeburgi infesting birch in Finland and Russia. Mycological Research 112:1475–1488.
MacDonald, E.; Hubert, J. 2002. A review of the effects of silviculture on timber quality of Sitka spruce. Forestry. 75(2):107–138.
Makhnev, A.K., Makhneva, O.V. 1979. Regularities of intraspecific variability of birch with respect to biological properties of seeds in the northern Ural mountains Rssian-SFSR USSR. Ekologiya (Moscow). 10(2):22–32.
Mark, R.E.; Adams, S.F.; Tang, R.C. 1970. Moduli of rigidity of Virginia pine and tulip poplar related to moisture content. Wood Science. 2(4):203–211.
Martynenko, A.B. 2009. Butterflies (Lepidoptera, Diurna) in boreal forests of southeastern Russia: 3. Stone birch forests. Biology Bulletin 36(4):347–353.
Megraw, R.A. 1985. Wood quality factors in loblolly pine. TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA.
Micklewright, J.T. 1992. Wood preservation statistics, 1990: A report to the wood-preserving industry in the United States. American Wood-Preservers' Association, Woodstock, MD.
Miqun, N.N. 2000. Density and species diversity dynamics of bird communities in the aspen-birch forests of the southern Urals. 56–57 p.
Murray, Y.D. 2007. Manual for LS-DYNA Wood Material Model 143. USDT, Federal Highway Administration, publication No. FHWA-HRT-0R-097. Pp. 163. Available online at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/04097/04097.pdf Last accessed on Jan. 22, 2013.
Murray, Y.D., Reid, J.D.; Faller, R.K.; Bielenberg, B.W.; Paulsen, T.J. 2005. Evaluation of LS-DYNA Wood Material Model 143. USDT, Federal Highway Administration, publication No. FHWA-HRT-04-096. Pp. 152. Available online at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/04096/04096.pdf, Last accessed on Jan. 22, 2013.
Ngo, L.; Wand, M.P. 2004. Smoothing with Mixed Model Software. Journal of Statistical Software. 9(1):1–54.
Nowaczyk K. 2012. Tupolev disintegrated in the air, in Polish, niezalezna.pl, http://niezalezna.pl/29053-tupolew-rozlecial-sie-w-powietrzu, 28.05.2012.
REA (Rural Electrician Administration). 1982. REA specifications for wood poles, stubs, and anchor logs. REA Bull. 44(2):345–351.
Reed, W.H.; Robertson, S.H.; Weinberg, L.W.T.; Tyndall, L.H. 1965. Full-scale Dynamic Crash Test of a Lockheed Constellation Model 1649 Aircraft. Federal Aviation Agency, Technical Report No. FAA-ADS-38. Available online at: http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/654538.pdf, Last accessed on Jan. 22, 2013.
Repola, J. 2006. Models for vertical wood density of Scots pine, Norway spruce, and birch stems and their application to determine average wood density. Silva Fennica. 40 (4):673–685.
Ruotsalainen, A.L.; Markkola, A.M.; Kozlov, M.V. 2009. Mycorrhizal colonisation of mountain birch (Betula pubescens spp czerepanovii) along three environmental gradients: does life in harsh environments alter plant-fungal relationships? Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 148(1-4):215–232.
Schimleck, L.R.; Evans, R.; Ilic, J.; Matheson, A.C. 2002. Estimation of wood stiffness of increment cores by near-infrared spectroscopy. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 32(1):129–135.
Schimleck, L.R.; Evans, R.; Jones, P.D.; Daniels, R.F.; Peter, G.F.; Clark, A. 2005. Estimation of microfibril angle and stiffness by near infrared spectroscopy using sample sets having limited wood density variation. IAWA Journal. 26(2):175–187.
Shchelkunova, R.P. 1982. Zonal distribution of fodder phytomass in the Taimyr peninsula Russian-SFSR USSR. Botanicheskii Zhurnal (St. Petersburg) 67(4):479–491.
Swenson, N.G., and B.J. Enquist. 2008. The relationship between stem and branch wood specific gravity and the ability of each measure to predict leaf area. Am. J. Bot. 95(4):516–519.
Talalueva, L.V.; Kosichenko, N.E. 1983. Adaptive changes of the leaf anatomical structure of various species of the genus betula betulaceae under dry steppe conditions of the lower Volga region USSR. Botanicheskii Zhurnal (St. Petersburg). 68(10):1374–1379.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Products Laboratory (Forest Products Laboratory). 2010. Wood handbook - Wood as an engineering material. General Technical Report FPL-GTR-190. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory: 508 p.
Utkin, A.I.; Zamolodchikov, D.G.; Gul'be, T.A.; Gul'be, T.I. 1996. Allometric equations for phytomass based on the data on pine, spruce, birch and aspen trees in European Russia. Lesovedenie. 30(6):36–46.
Vasilevich, V.I. 1996. Upland birch forests in north-west of European Russia. Botanicheskii Zhurnal (St. Petersburg) 81(11):1–13.
Vasilevich, V.I. 1997. Lowland birch forests in the North-West of European Russia. Botanicheskii Zhurnal (St. Petersburg) 82(11):19–29.
Weston, R.J.; Smith, G.J. 2012. Sesquiterpenes from the Inner Bark of the Silver Birch and the Paper Birch. Natural Product Communications 7(2):145–148.
Wilcox, W.W. 1978. Review of literature on the effects of early stages of decay on wood strength. Wood and Fiber. 9(4):252–257.
Wilson, T.R.C. 1932. Strength-moisture relations for wood. Tech. Bull. 282. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Wolfe, R.; Moody, R. 1997. Standard specifications for wood poles. In Morrell, J.J. (Editor). 1997. 1997 Utility Pole Structures Conference Trade Show. November 6–7, 1997, Nugget Hotel, Reno / Sparks, Nevada.
Wood, L.W.; Erickson, E.C.O.; Dohr, A.W. 1960. Strength and related properties of wood poles. Final report, ASTM wood pole research program. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
Wood, L.W.; Markwardt, L.J. 1965. Derivation of fiber stresses from strength values of wood poles. FPL Res. Pap. FPL-39. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Lab.
Yurkov, A.M.; Maximova, I.A.; Chernov, I.Y. 2004. The comparative analysis of yeast communities in birch forests of the European part of Russia and Western Siberia. Mikologiya I Fitopatologiya. 38(6):71–79.
Dowloads
Pubblicato
Fascicolo
Sezione
Licenza
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:- Authors grant the journal right of first publication, with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) following the publication by the journal, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
